Monday, March 3, 2025

Sociology Class Reading Response

    This semester, I am enrolled in Sociology 4100, titled Contemporary Social Theory. In this course, we look at important sociological theories that help us understand and study society. It explains how sociological theories are created and how they connect to research methods in real-world studies. Each week, we are given readings to complete, followed by a reading response assignment. The task is straightforward: we summarize the readings in the first part and then choose a notable aspect to elaborate on for the remainder of the response.

    For our first module, we read Chapters 1, 2, and 4 of Age of Fracture by Daniel T. Rogers. Here is my reading response:

    Age of Fracture by Daniel T. Rodgers explains the different shifts in intellectual life during the late 20th Century. Chapter One talks about a shift from collectivism to individualism, the "me decade". This chapter also focused on changes in presidential speeches, especially Reagan, as he emphasized personal responsibility and a reduced role for the government, as seen in his first inaugural address in 1981. Reagan’s communication style and ability to connect with the people evoked emotions throughout his speeches, by which he could influence public opinion in ways no previous president ever had. Chapter Two focuses more on the shift from Keynesian economics to market-oriented and supply-side economics. Instead of letting the government intervene and manage everything, deregulation happened, a reduction in taxes, and there were more individual decision-making powers. Chapter Four talks about the shift in social and political thought when it comes to race and identity. Race was now seen as a social construct rather than a fixed biological category, and scholars emphasized the role that all cultures play in shaping social realities. During the late 20th Century, marginalized groups began to assert their identities and demand recognition and rights while intellectuals and activists such as Martin Luther King Jr, Alex Haley, W.E.B. Du Bois, Booker T. Washington, Jesse Jackson, Toni Morrison, Cornel West, Maya Angelou, James Baldwin, Alice Walker, and many others, influenced and reshaped the discourse around race and identity for years to come.

    As I was reading chapter four, many of the names of intellectuals and activists were very familiar to me. I am an avid reader, especially when it comes to biographies, memoirs, non-fiction, or historical fiction. The names of Toni Morrison, Alice Walker, Maya Angelou, Alex Haley, and James Baldwin were all familiar because I have read their books as they are now banned. You may be familiar with some of the titles as they used to be required reading in school some time ago. I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, Roots, Beloved, The Bluest Eyes, Go Tell It to the Mountain, and The Color Purple are just some of the titles that you may have heard of. Many of these books are critical as they talk about slavery and the violence that occurred that caused significant historical trauma that should not be forgotten or swept under the rug. The powerful storytelling in each of these works is what makes them masterful and deserving of a place amongst other great authors. Banning books limits our access to diverse cultures, histories, and viewpoints, which is essential for fostering empathy and tolerance. Many of the banned books today reflect the period in which they were written, so banning them essentially erases important parts of history that need to be talked about, remembered, and not forgotten.


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Tuesday, February 11, 2025

The Impacts of Religious Uniformity and Intolerance on Social Cohesion

    While religious uniformity can create a sense of belonging for some, it can also lead to intolerance for those who are not part of your faith and community. Understanding the social dynamics that form alongside uniformity and intolerance can help unite or divide people. Education is one of our greatest tools and should be used to educate ourselves and others. By studying the impacts of religious uniformity and intolerance, we can hopefully see early warning signs that can prevent violence and instead promote peace, inclusivity, and diversity. Religious intolerance often intersects with other forms of racism, and so studying those can help us understand them better and help promote a more equitable society for all. Creating a tolerant community fosters mutual respect, especially in times of crisis. Making the communities we inhabit more resilient, welcoming, and inclusive for all, will create more understanding neighbors that everyone can benefit from. Religious uniformity and intolerance can influence various aspects of society including politics, education, and social values. Fostering environments of religious tolerance can enhance mutual respect and understanding, strengthening the social fabric, and contributing to a more stable and peaceful society.

    I decided to study the three different theories of Emile Durkheim, Karl Marx, and Max Weber and their varying views on religion. I also created a survey to gather data to go along with my research as that is one of the easiest ways to get quantitative data fast. I made it anonymous as I knew religion can be an emotional subject, especially here in Utah. I hoped to get some great honest answers about people's feelings and opinions on religion with it being anonymous. I ended up with 44 participants which gave me some great data to work with.


    Out of the 44 participants, 26 were born/raised in Utah, 18 were born/raised outside of Utah. I wanted to know if the participants were still in the same religion they were raised in, and 17 of the 44 answered yes, while 27 of the 44 answered no. I also asked for their current religious affiliation, and 20 answered they identified as Christian while the rest were divided as such; 17 identified as atheist/agnostic, 3 belonging to a folk religion, 1 Islam, 1 spiritual but not religious, 1 omnism, and 1 unafilliated but not agnostic. I thought it was important to understand the religious/nonreligious makeup of my participants so that I could understand the data that I was to receive from them. Emile Durkheim described religion as a vital institution that contributes to the stability and cohesion of society and so I knew I had to include him and Functionalism in my research. Karl Marx said that religion was created to distract people from the harsh realities of everyday life and so a study of religion would not be complete without his views and Conflict Theory. Max Weber suggested that individuals make rational choices about whether to practice religion based on social support and spiritual fulfillment, and so adding Rational Choice Theory was a good third option.

    To start with Emile Durkheim and Functionalism, I found a paper written by Professor A.R. Radcliffe-Brown. In his paper on religion and society, he mentions that “any religion is an important or even essential part of the social machinery, as are mortality and law, part of the complex system by which human beings are enabled to live together in an orderly arrangement of social relations. From this point of view, we deal not with the origins but with the social functions of religion, i.e., the contributions that they make to the formation and maintenance of a social order.” (Radcliffe-Brown, p.33) The key points of Functionalism when it comes to religion are social cohesion, moral framework, socialization, and that religion can provide answers or purpose in life. There are always drawbacks as religion can lead to discrimination, violence, or alienation as well.

    In my anonymous survey, I asked if religious uniformity and intolerance can marginalize and target groups from the broader society by creating division and conflict. 42 out of the 44 participants answered yes to that question. I then asked if they thought violence was caused by religious uniformity and intolerance. The answer this time was not as clear cut, but still in the same direction. Out of the 44 participants, when it came to violence and religious uniformity, 2 said yes, 23 said some of the time, 5 said most of the time, and 4 said no. For religious violence and intolerance, 22 said yes, 8 said some of the time, 14 said most of the time, and none said no. During my research I came across many different ways religious violence can play out. Some forms of religious violence are warfare, cyberattacks, witch-hunts, property damage, terrorism, mob violence, armed conflict, surveillance, forced conversations, human sacrifice, initiation rites, government force, and harassment just to name a few.

    Karl Marx saw a correlation between alienation and religion. In his book, Seven Theories of Religion, Daniel Pals said “We must notice a striking parallel between religious and socioeconomic activity. Both are marked by alienation. Religion takes qualities - moral values - out of our natural human life, and gives them, unnaturally to an imaginary and alien being we call God.” (Pals, pg.140) Some of the key concepts of Karl Marx’s conflict theory when it comes to religion are false hope and comfort, religion is used as a tool for control, it legitimizes social inequality, and it can exacerbate tensions. But Marx also saw that religious movements could be a source for change.

    Rational Choice Theory was the hardest of the three to research. Professor L.R. Iannaccone said “Most critics condemn rational choice for embracing too much or too little; too much, in that it assumes lighting powers of calculation, full information, and total self-control; too little, in that it fails to take account of preference formation, normative constraints, emotional impulses, social structures, and the like. Hence, it is said that more realistic models of human behavior must do more to acknowledge limitations of the human mind and the complexity of human culture.” (Innaccone, pg.85) Religion is very personal and emotional matter and cannot be measured in many ways. The choices people make are mainly based on costs and benefits, but emotions play a huge part as well, and that is something so personal and individual that it is tough to measure as Professor Iannaccone described in his findings above. Some of the key points of Rational Choice theory when it comes to religion are benefits, big business, social networks, costs, competition, and connections.

    One of the questions I was most curious about in my survey was if my participants beliefs were respected by others around them. Out of the 44 participants, 9 said yes, 19 said most of the time, 14 said some of the time, and 2 said no. When I asked them if they respected other’s beliefs, 34 said yes, 9 said most of the time, and 1 said some of the time. I wanted to know if tolerance or diversity was more important and out of the 44 participants 33 said that diversity was important while 11 said it was not. When I asked the same question about tolerance, 37 said tolerance was important while only 7 said it was not. Since all of my participants did live in Utah at the time they took my survey, I wanted to see what they thought of the community they currently lived in. I wanted to know if they thought their community was diverse and/or tolerant. I asked them what they currently saw in their community around them. Out of the 44 participants, 32 said they saw more uniformity than diversity, 2 said they saw only uniformity, 2 said they saw only diversity, 1 said they saw more diversity than uniformity, and 2 said they were equally represented.


    Utah is an interesting state when it comes to religion as there has always been a majority religion present. I found a Pew Research Study done in 2007 and then again in 2014 in Utah. Adults were asked questions about religion. 80% of adults in Utah had an absolutely certain belief in God in 2007, then in 2014 that number had dropped drastically to 61%. Another question from the Pew Research Study said that 66% of adults in Utah said that religion was very important in their lives in 2007 but by 2014 that number had dropped to 58%. In my survey, 27 out of the 44 participants mentioned that they were no longer in the same religion that they were born/raised in. Maybe it is nothing, or maybe it is individuals seeing uniformity and intolerance in religion as something they no longer want to be associated with as it is doing more harm than good to their neighbors and the community they live in.




Definitions used in my survey:
  • Uniformity: Creating an environment of sameness, silencing dissenting thoughts, opinions and beliefs.
  • Diversity: All religions are equally valid and should be tolerated and respected.
  • Intolerance: The inability to respect other people’s religious beliefs, practices, or identities.
  • Tolerance: The acceptance and understanding of different religions and their practices, and the promotion of peaceful coexistence among them. 

Sources:

Engels, Friedrich. “Speech at the Graveside of Karl Marx,” in Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels: Selected Works, tr. and ed. Marx-Engels-Lenin Institute, 2 vols. (Moscow 1951), 2:153. 

https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2024/03/15/8-in-10-americans-say-religion-is-losing-influ ence-in-public-life/

http://www.pewresearch.org/religious-landscape-study/database/state/utah/

Iannacconne,L. R. (1995). Voodoo Economics? Reviewing the Rational Choice Approach to Religion. Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion, 34(1), 76-88. http://doi.org/10.2307/1386524

Pals, D. L. (1996). Seven Theories of Religion. Oxford Universities Press. P.140 

Radcliffe-Brown, A. R. (1945). Religion and Society. The Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland, 75(½), 33-43. http://doi.org/10.2307/2844278

Stark, R. and Finke, R. (2001). Acts of Faith: Explaining the Human Side of Religion. University of California Press. p.37

Weber, M. (1949). The Methodology of the Social Sciences. New York Free Press. p.117

[Paper written for SOC 4000 research project UVU Fall 2024]
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Saturday, February 1, 2025

Lighter by Yung Pueblo Book Review

I am usually not one for self-help books. I have tried a bunch over the years and I just cannot get into them for some reason. A few of them I have faithfully read/listened to until the end and then still have not liked, while some I have just stopped listening to altogether cause I could never get into them. 

The audiobook for this book is read by the author and he is slightly monotone as he reads. I wasn't sure I would like his calm steady voice and it got to me slightly at certain times especially since it was 7 hours of the same voice without a lot of inflection. I almost stopped the book and picked something different but then it got good. I was not too far into it when all of a sudden I was paying really good attention and nodding along as he explained how he was trying to work through trauma to love himself. I found myself relating to his story even though we both experienced completely different things. After a little bit, I couldn't put it down and I had to continue to listen to what else profound he would utter next. I replayed certain parts that were very inspiring to me personally and wrote down some of the things he said so I could remember them. Even though I have now listened to the book and finished it, I think I will buy a hard copy of it so I can really read through it again and again. 

I enjoyed the entire book from beginning to end and was impressed by his knowledge and way of communicating all his thoughts and feelings. One part really stuck out to me so I made sure to write it down.

"We crave for our loved ones to live their lives in certain ways and make decisions that align with how we would decide things for ourselves. The love we have for our dear ones is often tarnished by our inner push to control them even when we know that real love is supporting their freedom."

I don't really have a problem supporting my kids in anything they do but my extended family is having a hard time with my "faith crisis" and feel that I am making a big mistake. I would love to convey to them that even though I am not following their path in life, I am in fact following my own path and it is still a good one. Maybe one day they will see that even though my path is different from theirs it is not any less valid or right.

I actually enjoyed it even though it was a self-help book.


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Wednesday, December 25, 2024

Latter-Day Saint Authority: Theologians and Critical Thinkers Need Not Apply.

    Inside the Latter-day Saint faith there is little room for critical thinking, individualism, or external validation. From a young age you are taught to follow the Prophet, obey your parents, study the scriptures, to learn line upon line, and to trust in God’s plan that you signed up for before you came to earth. There is no need for you to philosophize or dive deep into the unknowns as you are given your knowledge by God through a living prophet that tells you he will do the hard work for you instead. All you have to do is to just follow him, believe in him, and have faith that he is the only one with the authority to do so. In this paper I will show how authority within the LDS Church keeps its members from developing into philosophers and theologians by teaching them that theology and critical thinking will make believers more worldly and distant from the divine guidance of their religious leaders for spiritual direction.

Authority Keeps Theology on the Outside

    Theology is described in many different ways by many different authors. David Ford defines it as, “at its broadest as thinking about questions raised by and about the religions” (Ford,3) Louis Midgley describes it as, “to seek understanding of God’s reality, to describe divine things rationally, and to elaborate the present meaning of past manifestations of God, whether theoretically, practically, descriptively, or critically.” (Midgley,1475) James Faulconer on the other hand takes a different approach and calls theology prophetic revelation in his paper titled “Rethinking Theology” as he describes it as, “the continuously revealed word of God.” (Faulconer, 175-199) Latter-day Saints believe that their current Prophet continues to receive revelation from God and that this was restored to the Prophet Joseph Smith in 1829. Each prophet since Smith has been able to receive revelation from God which has been passed down to their current Prophet today. Since continuing revelation is a key part of the LDS religion, dogmatic theology really has no place inside the tradition as it can always be replaced by new revelation. Faulconer warns Latter-day Saints that, “theologizing by those who are not prophets may put the kingdom at a distance by making talk about the gospel merely talk about our own learning.” (Faulconer, 175-199)

    This opinion of Faulconer is not a new one inside the Latter-day Saint faith, it is actually one expressed often by those in authority. Keeping members disciplined and blindly following the words of their prophets and leaders, members gather to listen to their prophet and other leaders of the church twice yearly as they deliver sermons over a two day period. This event is televised all over the world to reach as many members as possible. The Prophet, and the other 14 highest ranking officers in the church also identified as prophets, will captivate the audience and each member will listen intently to each of the words that they think are written just for them. They hope revelation will come and that divine words will be spoken that they can hold onto for another six months until the next conference. They are fully aware that their current prophet can reveal new things, even if it means contradicting a prophet from the past.

    Current Latter-day prophets have not made any major revelations like the Prophet Joseph Smith did in his day. We can easily count the number of official revelations that have been added to the open canon of the LDS Church since then. Gordon B. Hickley, a Latter-day Saint prophet, gave the following quote in an interview in 1997. “Now we don’t need a lot of continuing revelation. We have a great, basic reservoir of revelation. But if a problem arises, as it does occasionally, a vexatious thing with which we have to deal, we go to the Lord in prayer.” (Hinckley) Since not a lot of new revelation has been revealed, each statement made by prophets old and new have been dissected over the years by church members. With an impressive collection of conference talks on many different topics given by many different prophets past and present, members can study their words and can easily go down rabbit holes that lead to misinformation as canon has changed over the years with no set doctrine or theology in place. In an effort to keep things current and members on the right track, the current prophet has what Robert Millet calls “prophetic prerogative” (Millet, 2009) in his paper titled “Defining Doctrine”. Millet describes this as the ability to edit sermons of the past, giving prophets divine editorship to weed out the doctrine that is no longer taught, and giving sticking power to doctrine that has, “endured the test of time, that continued to be taught by Church leaders in later generations, would generally bear the mark of truth.” (Millet, 2009)

    Some examples of this would include the Adam-God doctrine that was taught during Brigham Young's time and had to be edited out of the conversation as it was false and led to many problems as members believed it long past the time it was talked about. Nathan Oman mentions Bishop Bunker of Bunkerville Nevada in his paper titled “Truth, Doctrine, and Authority”. (Oman, 2009) This bishop was excommunicated in the 1880s for teaching the doctrine of the Adam-God theory to his congregation after the rest of the Church stopped teaching it. Because of open canon, revelation was received around 30 years later by the First Presidency and they issued a Doctrinal Exposition titled “The Father and the Son” (Improvement Era, 934-942) which replaced the Adam-God theory altogether with this new official revealed doctrine. Since revelation replaced the outdated Adam-God theory, even if it once was doctrine, it now no longer had a place in that same realm.

    Another example of doctrine that has been rewritten is the idea that people with black skin were less worthy, fence sitters in heaven, and not part of the “chosen lineage”. This was another idea that caught on during the early days of the Church and was very hard to write out of the narrative. The topic of Black people not being part of the LDS faith for a long time is a part of history most leaders would rather forget than remember. Joseph Smith let Elijah Abel, a young Black convert, join the early church in 1830, as well as Jane Manning James who joined in Illinois some years later. These two Black Latter-day Saints were not the only ones who joined the growing church as Joseph Smith and others welcomed them with open arms. Elijah Abel was given the priesthood by Joseph Smith as he himself did not see a problem with Black people having that authority. Years after the death of Joseph Smith, Latter-day Saints began to theorize about the hierarchy of lineages. With the belief that God had restored his one true Church back on the earth again through Joseph Smith also came the belief that they, Latter-day Saints, were from the chosen line that would be gathered with the gathering of Israel in the last days. Joseph Smith had taught them about life before they came to earth, a premortal life, where they were righteous, noble, and followed God’s plan for them. “To the Prophet Joseph Smith it was revealed that we are all literal spirit sons and daughters of heavenly parents. He received a revelation of information once made known to Moses. Intelligences were organized before the world was, and among these were many great and noble ones, such as Abraham and Moses. God stood in their midst, saw that they were good, and chose them for responsibilities on earth and throughout eternity.” (Brown, 1124) With this knowledge they started to see themselves, and the color of their skin, more righteous, and part of this royal blood line that God talked about in the premortal life. Brigham Young officially instituted a policy restricting Black men from holding the priesthood as opinions differed on chosen lineage and who was eligible and worthy. With this new ban in place came a lot of speculations over the years as to why Black men could not hold the priesthood. Many church leaders would share their words and opinions over the pulpit and members would take these words as doctrine and a lot of misinformation was spread this way. All of what was said by past prophets and leaders has now been rewritten to make the past history seem more like personal opinion and not prophetic infallibility. In 1978 a new revelation was given to Spencer W. Kimball, the Prophet at that time, that lifted the ban preventing Black men from holding the priesthood inside the Latter-day Saints faith.

    Joseph Smith himself declared that, “a Prophet is not always a Prophet, only when he is acting as such.” (Smith) This declaration from the original founder of the Church shows that even back then there was confusion of what was supposed to be revelation and what was opinion. Since Smith has uttered those words, other church leaders have made similar statements regarding prophetic infallibility. D. Todd Christofferson declared that, “Not every statement made by a church leader, past or present, necessarily constitutes doctrine. A single statement made by a single leader on a single occasion often represents a personal, though well-considered, opinion, but is not meant to be officially binding for the whole church.” (Christofferson, 86-90) Since the LDS Church does not have an official canon, and continuing revelation can change the wording on the canon that is currently in place, Armand Mauss, a renowned sociologist of religion who studied the LDS faith in depth, presented a “Scale of Authenticity” by which we can gauge what can be seen as official doctrine at any given time. Brian Birch explains this scale in detail in his paper titled “Beyond the Canon: Authoritative Discourse in Comparative Perspective.” (Birch)

Mauss’ Scale of Authenticity

    Canon doctrine is what is currently being taught as revelation within the Church and as such is the most important doctrine. The scriptures, this includes the Book of Mormon, the Bible, the Doctrine of Covenants, and the Pearl of Great Price, are also considered part of the most important doctrine taught within the Latter-day Saints tradition. Official doctrine would include statements from the Prophet, the First Presidency, official Church publications, and curriculum currently being taught within the Church. Since the Church has open canon the next prophet can change any of the official doctrine at will when he comes to power making this level of doctrine hold less authority on the scale. Finally there are two more categories which include authoritative doctrine and popular doctrine. Authoritative doctrine is all the literature and talks given by Church authorities and educators over the years. In 1983, a disclaimer had to be added to all books published by the Church stating that, “the views expressed in this book do not represent the official position of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints.” (1983 Letter) With so many books published by so many different Church leaders putting their own opinion into their work, the Church could no longer control what was being put out there for members to read. In the past prophets had to rewrite and edit doctrine that was no longer taught inside the faith with new revelation, or it had to be written out of the narrative all together. Now with this disclaimer, the Church could just say this was the personal opinion of the author and not official Church doctrine and there would be a lot less rewriting and editing later on when doctrine would change. Popular Doctrine includes all the literature containing folk theology and doctrine that circulated among the membership that was never officially adopted by the Church. This would include the racist theological beliefs that Black individuals were from the cursed line of Cain, the Adam-God theory, the three Nephites from the Book of Mormon that still wander the earth today, the opinion that God will restore the Adamic language before the second coming, the King Follett Discourse, and more. With almost 200 years of revelation and doctrinal changes that is a lot to keep track of to know which particular policy or doctrine is accurate and currently being used and which one is outdated or has been replaced. The changes alone from Joseph Smith's time to today when it comes to the Word of Wisdom, Polygamy, and the Temple ceremony are significant to name just a few. There are many other changes that are less noticeable that I want to point out just to show you how they fly under the radar. Many Church leaders gave talks on the topic of divorce such as David O. McKay, Spencer W. Kimball, and John A. Widtsoe. Their words were given during General Conference and while they were speaking as Prophets and Apostles. Back in the 60s and 70s their words on divorce were harsh and not very eloquent. For example David O. McKay wrote, “When one puts business or pleasure above his home, he that moment starts on the downgrade to soul-weakness. When the club becomes more attractive to any man than his home, it is time for him to confess in bitter shame that he has failed to measure up to the supreme opportunity of his life and flunked the final test of true manhood. No other success can compensate for failure in the home.” (McKay, 5) If you were to look up the official Church stance on divorce today all of these past Prophets and Apostles words are replaced by much more neutral wording, talks given by more recent prophets, and scripture references. Another example of this is when we look up homosexuality. J. Reuben Clark, Joseph Fielding Smith, Harold B. Lee, Boyd K. Packer, and N. Eldon Tanner, to name a few, wrote very strong words about homosexuality in the 60s and 70s. Church leaders perceived homosexuals as depressed, unhappy, sinful, and in need of repentance. (Brough,157) In 2006 the official position of the Church changed and the word homosexuality was removed and substituted by same-gender attraction. “The Church does not have a position on the causes of … susceptibility or inclinations … related to same-gender attraction. Those are scientific questions - whether nature or nurture - those are things the Church doesn’t have a position on.” (Bergera, 418) The previous statements written by the Prophets and Apostles in the 60s and 70s are no longer up on the Church website, they have been edited out of the narrative.

Follow the Prophet

    In 1980, Ezra Taft Benson, gave a talk to the membership of the church titled, “Fourteen Fundamentals in Following the Prophet.” (Benson, 1980) He would become the next Prophet five years later. Over the years the focus on listening to authority would increase even more. The very first point he mentions is that the Prophet is the only man that can speak for God in everything. He is making sure that all members stay aware of this fact as this is a very important matter within the Church as the Prophet is the man that can change doctrine and has as we have seen. The second point is that the Prophet is more vital than the scriptures. A living prophet today can rewrite and edit what was written all those years ago if God comes to him and gives him a revelation to change it. Number three on his list was that a living prophet was more important than a dead prophet. Again here the Prophet today can rewrite history if God wants him to and as we have seen by some of my examples above, a lot of prophets seem to do so in a sense. His fourth point quickly after that tells us that the Prophet can never lead his people astray. His fifth point is that a prophet is not required to have any sort of earthly training to be a prophet as God will be his mentor. He warns that there will be those out there who may feel that they may be more qualified on certain topics than the current prophet and this may be why members are not encouraged to become philosophers and theologians because they would be able to understand more than the current prophet when it comes to religion or philosophy. Number six on the list is that the Prophet does not have to say “Thus saith the Lord” for his words to become scripture. He goes on to say that some people may argue with the Prophet if they don’t agree with some of the things he is asking the members to do. This leads into number seven which is that the Prophet tells us what we need to know, not always what we want to know. He quotes Harold B. Lee here, another former prophet, “You may not like what comes from the authority of the Church. It may conflict with your political views. It may contradict your social views. It may interfere with some of your social life… Your safety and ours depends on whether or not we follow… Let’s keep our eye on the President of the Church.” A man with authority telling its members that if they don’t listen and follow everything their prophet tells them they could be in danger and put their fellow neighbors, members, and family members in danger as well is a great tactic to keep members in line and keep them from thinking for themselves. Number eight on his list is that the Prophet is not limited by man’s reasoning. Here again you are told to put your entire trust in God and the Prophet even if you might not understand why at times. Number nine and ten go together as nine is that the Prophet can receive revelation on temporal and spiritual matters and ten is that the Prophet may give advice on civic matters. I think this is an interesting idea as I personally believe in separation of Church and State and don’t believe that those two should ever mix. The Church has a lot of power and I have seen LDS authority use that power to make sure the Equal Rights Amendment was not passed in Utah in 1975. They again used that authority within the Church to rile up members to vote against proposition 8 in California in 2008 as they did not want same-sex marriage to become legal there. Number 11 on the list reads that the two groups who have the most difficulty following the Prophet are the proud who are learned and the proud who are rich. Again this is a reference to if you think you know more than the Prophet you are not in harmony with the teachings of the gospel. Number twelve reads that the Prophet will not necessarily be popular with the world or be worldly. Number thirteen just states that the Prophet and his counselors make up the First Presidency, the highest quorum in the Church. And finally number fourteen states that if you follow the Prophet and the First Presidency you will be blessed and if you reject them you will suffer. After hearing all that, who would not want to obey and follow the Prophet's words because you are told the alternative means suffering.

Theology Can Be Beneficial

    “Active Mormons are surrounded by church teachings and ideals at every turn: the time commitments required of a faithful Saint make the religious social sphere the primary sphere in his or her life, creating an arguably insular LDS culture wherein children and converts are gradually and completely oriented to social norms and regulations. At church meetings, LDS doctrine is continually taught and reinforced beginning at 18 months of age (through simplified “nursery” lessons) and continuing through adulthood, using Church-published manuals to organize lessons around pre-approved doctrine or themes. Moreover, through ubiquitous use of media such as Church-sanctioned magazines, books, pamphlets, and videos, the Church gains a pervasive presence in the lives of active members, constantly reaffirming the doctrine and standard of the Church in all areas of life.” (Avance, 12) Since philosophy, theology, and critical thinking are not part of the curriculum within the Latter-day Saint church, it always amazes me when I meet new people who discover Plato and Aristotle for the first time and are in awe. Philosophy is all about being curious about the world and asking the right questions and then trying to answer them. The most complex philosophical questions never seem to change over the years as we never seem to be able to answer them. Theology is the same in a sense where we are trying to understand God, human beings, and how it all fits together. The fact that Latter-day Saints “don’t do” theology is something they should look into as there are many conflicting issues within the faith that could benefit from some critical studies involving more than revelation. Stephen Davis wrote a paper titled “Philosophical Theology for Mormons: Some Suggestions from an Outsider.” One of the points he brings up is logical consistency. He points out that not all the doctrine within the Church is consistent with each other. There are conflicting principles and statements here and there which can make sense when you can change your doctrine at will and you have been doing this for almost 200 years. Davis points out that the Church has two ways in which it changes doctrine, officially and unofficially. When revelation is received, it can officially make a change and the new doctrine takes over for the old doctrine. Unofficially, when Church leaders decide to stop teaching something that is believed by most members, they don’t make an announcement, they just stop. I pointed this out above with my examples on divorce and homosexuality. There were never any announcements made that the views of the Church changed on those topics, you would only know this if you were to search for it. Another part of this that Davis points out is that church leaders should distinguish between normative doctrine and traditional, but not permitted doctrine. As I pointed out earlier again, Mauss has a scale for this which we can look at which would put the traditional doctrine all the way at the bottom with the folk beliefs and hopefully members will know the difference between the doctrine currently taught and doctrine that is just talk.

    Davis gives us three reasons why he thinks Latter-day Saints don’t like theology. The first is that they don’t want to concern themselves with academic problems and would rather deal with down-to-earth problems. Number two is that the scriptures are more important than dealing with theology. Third, revelation and open canon, would make theology useless as it would just override anything theology could come up with. Latter-day Saints have always been taught to study from the best books and get an education, so I don’t understand why academic problems would be a concern. In my personal opinion I believe Church leaders don’t want their members to think critically, develop theories of their own and study the deep questions that philosophers have been studying for years. But this is exactly what they should be studying because this kind of thinking would, “help Latter-day Saints understand their own religion, help settle internal disputes as to what church doctrine is and what is not, and enter into informed dialogue with non-Mormons and assist Mormon scholars whenever necessary to defend Mormonism from criticism” (Davis, 2007) according to Davis.

    James Faulconer points out in his paper titled “Performative Theology: Not Such a New Thing” that studying the scriptures inside the Latter-day Saints church, understanding the history behind them, and reflecting on them in a scholarly way, can be a form of theology. (Faulconer, 1-24) Many members read the same scriptures multiple times in their lifetime hoping to gain new insight each time they read the same passages. Benjamin Huff compares Latter-day Saint learning to Theology in a one-room schoolhouse. (Huff, 2004) Every member continues to learn throughout their life, line upon line, precept upon precept with the goal that in the end they are all unified in one faith. Each Sunday, members gather together to study the scriptures and discuss doctrine with other members who may not have their same level of knowledge. Huff calls the scriptures messy and polyphonic (layered) in his paper, and advocates for studying the scriptures together with those of all levels of knowledge to gain a better understanding than you would studying alone. This could be considered a form of philosophizing with others as you dive deeper into the meaning behind what you are reading and thus bring the scriptures into theology.

    When it comes to Davis’ third point about the LDS Church having revelation and open canon and thus not being able to have theology, he addresses that by stating that this should not be a barrier but that it should just be treated how doctrine is being treated inside the LDS Church today. When things change, the current theological statements can be indexed with the old doctrine or they can be revised alongside with the changes that were made.

Theologians and Critical Thinkers Need Not Apply

    Latter-day Saint members should be able to weigh their prophet's words and personally filter out the components they believe they want to follow in their lives. They should be able to use their own critical thinking to study their scriptures, doctrine, and other components of their religion. They should be able to raise intellectual questions about their faith and their leaders without fear of discipline. A culture wherein philosophy and intellectually stimulating conversations can be had would be beneficial as discipline, group thinking, and blind obedience only keeps members from reaching their true potential in life. Past theologians such as John Calvin, Martin Luther, Thomas Aquinas, and many theologians today are worth studying as they can enlighten us in so many ways.


Sources:


Avance, R. (2010). Worthy “Gods” and “Goddesses.” Journal of Religion & Society, 12.

Benson, Ezra T. (1980) Fourteen Fundamentals in Following the Prophet. Brigham Young University address

Bergera, G. J. (2007). Statements of the LDS first presidency: A topical compendium. Signature Books. Page 418 sexual relations

Birch, Brian D. Beyond the Canon: Authoritative Discourse in Comparative Perspective (could not locate anymore information online for citation)

Brough, R. Clayton (1980) His Servants Speak: Statements by Latter-day Saint Leaders on Contemporary Topics, chapter 32 homosexuality, page 157

Brown, Gayle O. (1992) Premortal Life. Encyclopedia of Mormonism V.3 Macmillan, page 1124.

Christofferson, D. Todd. (2012) “The Doctrine of Christ,” Ensign, May, 2012, 86-90.

“Compass Interview with Prophet Gordon B. Hinckley,” Compass, November 9, 1997, transcript at http://www.abc.net.au/compass/intervs.hinckley.htm.

Faulconer, J. E. (2020). Performative theology: Not such a new thing. Dialogue: A Journal of Mormon Thought, 53(3), 1–24.

Faulconer, J. E. (2007). Rethinking theology: The shadow of the apocalypse. The FARMS Review, 19 (2007)(1), 175–199.

Ford, David (2003) Theology: A Very Short Introduction (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2000), 3.

Huff, Benjamin. (2004) Theology in the One-Room Schoolhouse. Society for Mormon Philosophy and Theology Conference 2004.

Joseph Smith Collection, Box 1, Folder 5 Church History Library

Letter to General Authorities, March 22, 1983, LDS Church History Library.

McKay, David, O. (1964) President of the Church, CR, April, 1964, pp 5

Midgley, Louis. C. (1992) Theology. Encyclopedia of Mormonism V.4 Macmillan, page 1475.

Millet, Robert L. (2009) Defining Doctrine: A Response to Loyd Ericson. Element Vol. 5 Issue 1 (Spring, 2009)

Oman, Nathan B. (2009) Truth, Doctrine, and Authority. Element Vol. 5 Issue 1 (Spring, 2009)

Stephen, T. Davis, (2007) Philosophical Theology for Mormons: Some Suggestions from an outsider. Element Vol 3. Issues 1 & 2 (Spring & Fall 2007)

The Father and the Son. (1916) Improvement Era, 934-42

[Paper written for PHIL 490R class UVU Summer 2024]
aB . 2024 . All Rights Reserved


Monday, December 23, 2024

The Tragic Consequences of Perceived Superiority: Hatred, Persecution, and the Holocaust.

    European anti-Semitism goes back many generations and is rooted mainly, but not only, in religious beliefs. The idea that Jews are responsible for the death of Jesus is a notion that has survived thousands of years, as well as the idea that Jews are shrewd moneylenders, which also stems from that same period. Nazi anti-Semitism, however, is composed of completely different beliefs about Jews and has nothing to do with religion, but everything to do with blood. The hatred, persecution, and ultimate extermination of Jews stemmed from the fact that they saw themselves as the more superior race. They answered the Jewish question by proposing to eliminate them completely through state-sponsored policies, laws, and violence fueled by eugenics.

    In 1903, the Pan-German League tried to invigorate German citizens to unite and keep the awareness of themselves as “Germans” at the forefront. They wanted to make sure their ethnicity was preserved and that the next generation was being educated correctly about who they were. (Kruck, 10) Many Germans were swept up with this idea, Adolf Hitler being one of them. He gave a speech in September 1921, where he argued that Jews could not change because their qualities were inherited, and so the solution would be to separate the Jew from the rest of society to prevent corruption so that the Aryan race could be kept vibrant and healthy. “And in this characteristic, which he cannot transcend, which lies in his blood… -in this characteristic itself lies the necessity for the Jew that he must present himself as destructive to the state.” (Griech-Polelle, 67-8) Hitler was very passionate about excluding anyone from the community who could potentially disrupt the purity and health of the perfect German race, all before he was even in a high position of power.

    Once Hitler assumed power he had to be careful not to alienate the German people by enforcing his agenda too fast. The Nazi party created a 25-point party program back in 1920, where they declared their intentions to segregate the Jews from the Aryan nation. (Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, Volume IV, Document No. 1708-PS) They never tried to hide this and were vocal and public with their intentions for years. During Hitler's rise to power, they were finally able to implement many of the points of their plan, using him as their vehicle every step of the way. Hitler had to work in such a way that the German people would also come to understand his point of view when it came to the Jewish question in slow, subtle, yet powerful ways. The meticulous and carefully planned propaganda against the Jews started by including communists and socialists in the same category thus making them all seem part of a bigger problem. On April 7, 1933, the “Law for the Restoration of the Professional Civil Service” was proclaimed, announcing that you could no longer work in civil service unless you were of Aryan descent. This was the very first anti-Semitic law of Hitler’s regime and the start of a laundry list of policies and laws aimed at Jews to ruin them financially with the hopes that they would give up and leave Germany voluntarily. (Griech-Polelle, 79)

    The idea that German blood and being of Aryan descent is what makes you superior was of great importance to Hitler and many others within Nazi leadership. After implementing policies and laws limiting Jews in many capacities, the Nazi party finally saw the need to define what it truly meant to be a German citizen. On September 15, 1935, the German parliament, now made up entirely of Nazi representatives, passed two new laws known as the Nuremberg Laws. “The Reich Citizenship Law” is the first of those two new laws and it defined a citizen as someone of German or kindred blood. If you were a citizen, you would be able to enjoy full political rights such as the right to vote. If you were Jewish, you were no longer considered a citizen, according to this new law, even if you came from a mixed Jewish family. This new law was a huge step backward for Jews in Germany, as they were now no longer considered citizens in a nation that many had lived in for generations. Article 2.1 of the new law states that a Reich citizen: “proves by his conduct that he is willing and fit to faithfully serve the German people and Reich.” (USHMM) Many Jews fought bravely for their country in World War I and considered themselves maybe even more German than Jewish. Now they were tossed aside like garbage because their blood on the inside mattered more than what they had contributed to their country in the past.

    The second law created was the “Law for the Protection of German Blood and German Honor.” The first paragraph of that law reads: “Moved by the understanding that purity of German blood is the essential condition for the continued existence of the German people, and inspired by the inflexible determination to ensure the existence of the German nation for all time, the Reichstag has unanimously adopted the following law.” (USHMM) This law banned marriage between Jews and non-Jewish German citizens. It even criminalized a relationship between them and labeled it as race defilement. If you tried to skirt the law by getting married outside of the country, there was an addition that stated that your marriage would be invalid when you returned and that the government had the authority to annul it. Violation of this law resulted in prison time which could even include hard labor. The matter of race was taken very seriously in the eyes of the Nazi party, and the idea of defiling pure, healthy, German blood had caused them to take extreme measures such as the Nuremberg Laws.

    Between 1933 and 1939 more than four hundred different regulations, policies, and laws were implemented that affected Jews in all aspects of their lives. These included the laws I already mentioned above, as well as many others, ranging from ever-changing restrictions for Jewish students at Universities to Jewish officers being expelled from the army, and so much more.

    The never-ending list of anti-Semitic policies and laws were not created because of anti-religious beliefs against Jewish people. They were simply a way for the Nazi party to keep pressure on a group that already felt like they were drowning and there was nobody there to pull them to safety. With each new law restricting them even further some only saw suicide as the way out, and some paid the enormous tax and left with only the clothes on their backs, many thought this possibly could not last forever and things would eventually go back to normal again, but most could never predict that it would get much worse. The Nazi party would never see the Jewish people as citizens, and if they did not leave voluntarily after six long years of tightening restrictions and making life unbearable for them, the Nazis would have to come up with another plan, because they couldn’t have them stay and defile their superior race of strong and pure German blood. The final solution would have to involve something more sinister as expulsion was not working.



Sources:


Beth A. Griech-Polelle, Anti-Semitism and the Holocaust: Language, Rhetoric and the Traditions of Hatred (London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2023)

Alfred Kruck, Die Geschichte des Alldeutschen Verbandes 1890-1939 [The History of the Pan-German League 1890-1939] (Wiesbaden: Steiner, 1954)

Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, Volume IV, Document No. 1708-PS, Translation of Document 1708-PS, edited by Dr. Robert Ley (Munich: Central Publishing House of the N.S.D.A.P., Franz Eher, successor).

United States holocaust memorial museum, https://encyclopedia.ushmm.org/content/en/article/nuremberg-laws.




[Paper written for HIST 4130 class UVU Fall 2024]
aB . 2024 . All Rights Reserved

Wednesday, December 18, 2024

UVU Sustainability Tour: Water

    I love seeing the giant reflection pools outside of the BA building with that water spraying up, and I always wondered how they could justify that water when Utah had drought restrictions. During our sustainability tour, the gentlemen from facilities were able to answer so many of those questions, and really put UVU’s water consumption and conservation into perspective for me.

    I worked for Alpine School District as a head custodian for 9 years between 2013 and 2022. During that time I was in charge of a lot of the same things facilities explained to us on our tour, but on a much smaller scale. My area was just one elementary school as opposed to one University. I had to deal with the water restrictions during dry years, events or soccer games at the last minute and someone calling me to come shut off the water, broken sprinkler lines (and not knowing when one was broken until someone notified me), dying bushes or trees and having to replace them because they were not getting enough water, wind carrying the mist from small sprinklers and so the edges getting brown on small strips off lawn, and so much more. I received one of those fancy digital sprinkler clocks that hooked to my phone and it made my life so much easier. I was able to see weather patterns, and it would turn off the sprinklers when it rained. If a sprinkler broke, it would turn off that section and alert me instead of shooting a giant stream of water straight into the air for hours on end. The new technology was amazing and probably saved the district a lot of money and water. It also saved me a lot of time, energy, and frustration.

    I was able to understand a lot of what they were talking about in the tour as I was one of “them” for many years and loved what I did. I started UVU as a freshman in 1994 (it was UVSC back then) and it has grown a lot in the last 30 years. There are many more buildings, and more grassy areas. There are more parking lots and concrete walkways connecting them all together. As the school is growing in size by building and mass, it is also growing with people and that means more feet that walk over that grass. I think they are really taking all that into account, as they mentioned that they are adding compost to the water that will help the roots become stronger and thicker, to stand up to the extra amount of wear and tear so that it endures more people walking on it, sitting on it, playin on it. They are seeing the bigger picture, and they know they need to keep looking outside of that even further as the school continues to expand, so that they can keep up with technology and sustainability efforts, even if they may seem small.


[Paper written for SOC 3520 class UVU Fall 2024]
aB . 2024 . All Rights Reserved

Tuesday, December 17, 2024

From Segregation to Extermination: The Role of Ghettos in the Holocaust

    With the newly acquired Lebensraum in Poland, Heinrich Himmler, Minister of the Interior, was put in charge of bringing ethnic Germans from all over the world to live in the new German Reich territories. The plan was to have 4 to 5 million Germans settle where the Poles and Jews were currently living. (Griech-Polelle, 167) This was a huge problem with conflicting ideas on how to make this happen. Joseph Goebbels, the Minister of Propaganda, was successful in making sure the people in the Old German Reich were fully onboard with the deportations that were going to happen. Over the last few weeks, I have read many different opinions that have pointed to either a functionalist or an intentionalist view when it comes to Hitler and his persecution of the Jews. I want to take a closer look at why the Jewish people were put into ghettos by comparing and contrasting those two different points of view as they both have valid arguments and explanations. At the beginning of Hitler’s reign, he wanted the Jewish people out of the old German Reich to make room for ethnic Germans and to further his goals to achieve racial purity. Many of the early laws and policies created were supposed to force the Jews to leave on their own. When that was not as successful as originally anticipated, and with the outbreak of World War Two, the remaining Jewish population was segregated into ghettos instead. The creation of ghettos was to control and monitor the Jews, to be able to exploit them for labor, and ultimately to round them up for deportation to concentration and extermination camps.

    The first point I make in my thesis statement is that Jews were put into ghettos so that the Nazis could control and monitor them more easily. From an intentionalist perspective, the ghettos would be a conscious next step before total annihilation. You round up all Jews, concentrate them together, but isolate them from the outside world so that they lose hope and see who is really in control. Starving them inside of the ghettos could have been part of the plan as well, but when the Nazis realized it would take a very long time, as the Jews were able to smuggle in food and other things to sustain themselves a little, they had to turn to more advanced measures of elimination instead. From a functionalist perspective, the ghettos could have easily been unplanned but became a necessary and temporary holding place while Himmler figured out how to move around millions of Poles, Jews, and ethnic Germans to get Hitler the Reich he wanted. Once the Nazis figured out that rounding up all Jews into more contained locations, such as ghettos, would be more beneficial, instructions were sent out by Reinhard Heydrich, Himmler's deputy, to dissolve Jewish communities into those contained ghettos instead. (Yad Vashem, 73)


    My second point is that the ghettos helped the Nazis exploit the Jews for labor. At the higher levels of Nazi leadership, there were conflicting opinions when it came to rounding up the Jews. Hermann Göring, the second most powerful man in Germany at that time, “opposed the deportation of any useful manpower, especially agricultural labor.” (Browning, 13) To balance this out, at first, ghettos were open and those who worked could do so when they produced the necessary documents. Later, ghettos were closed off and life inside became much worse for everyone as nobody was allowed to leave anymore. The intentionalist argument here makes less sense to me as you would not want to starve your workforce or round them all up if they are providing much-needed labor for you during the war. The functionalist perspective is unplanned and so it makes more sense that the Nazis believed they could still benefit from the Jews even inside the ghettos, and that they could exploit them for as long as possible that way. Those that were too weak to work, because of the inadequate food supplies inside the ghettos, could just be replaced by others who were willing and still able to work for the time being. In November of 1940, all Jews between the ages of 18 and 45 were forced to complete compulsory labor (Griech-Polelle, 183) thus keeping the labor pool large for the Nazis to exploit inside and outside of the ghettos.

    My third point is that the ghettos made it easier to round up the Jews for deportation to concentration and extermination camps. From an intentionalist perspective, this is their ultimate goal, and the ghettos were just a temporary resting place while they were perfecting their instruments of death and torture. The Nazis were able to observe the starvation in the ghettos and knew they needed to come up with better and faster ways to eliminate the Jews. One way they did this was by introducing gassing vans as mass shootings were taking an emotional toll on their soldiers. (Becker, 999-1000) While the functionalist perspective did not plan for the Jews to be sent to ghettos in the first place, the Nazis still did not see them as human, and so it was only natural to either shoot them all and bury them in large mass graves on site, (Poliakov, 125-126) or move them to concentration and extermination camps when the time was right.

    Whether you find the intentionalist or functionalist view more compelling, both perspectives, in the end, come to the same conclusion, that the only way to answer the Jewish question at that time, was to exterminate them all. The ghettos made control over the Jews easier, and the Nazis could monitor any resistance that was potentially forming. While the Nazis differed on their ideas on timing when it came to rounding up the Jews into the ghettos, as the Jewish population was heavily involved in the workforce, they still were able to exploit them until many were too weak to work. When the Nazis were ready to move onto their next phase, having the Jews in concentrated ghettos, all the cumulative efforts up to that point resulted in a successful outcome of the final solution. The intentionalist or functionalist viewpoint in reality actually does not matter, the outcome of the ghettos, as we have seen, performed its functions and cost millions their lives. Maybe adding a perspective helps break down the damage done in some ways, or helps others sort through the indescribable horrors. Maybe it can even help some find ways to explain why this was done to an entire group of people for reasons that in today’s society would not make sense, and really in the end can not be justified.


Sources:

Dr. August Becker, SS Untersturmführer, to SS-Obersturmbannführer Rauff, May 16, 1942, in Nazi Conspiracy and Aggression, Washington, D.C.: U.S. Government Printing Office, 1946.

Christopher R. Browning, The Path to Genocide: Essays on Launching The Final Solution, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992.

Beth A. Griech-Polelle, Anti-Semitism and the Holocaust: Language, Rhetoric and the Traditions of Hatred, London: Bloomsbury Academic, 2023.

Leon Poliakov, Harvest of Hate, Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 1954.

Yad Vashem, Documents on the Holocaust: Selected Sources on the Destruction of the Jews of Germany and Austria, Poland and the Soviet Union, Jerusalem: Yad Vashem, 1981, Document no. 73.


[Paper written for HIST 4130 class UVU Fall 2024]
aB . 2024. All Rights Reserved